THE FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

TWENTIETH CENTURY PSYCHOTHERAPY

BEHAVIORISM

FREUDIAN PSYCHOANALYSIS

JUNGIAN ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY

ADLERIAN INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

ROGERIAN CLIENT-CENTERED COUNSELING

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

CONSCIOUSNESS

The impact of psychology and psychotherapy in our era has been so great that we have almost forgotten their history, which reaches far into ancient times. The sweeping ability of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) to systematize his insights and apply them across the board to virtually all the institutions of human existence was, of course, startlingly new in the early 1900s. Now, at the end of the century, Freudianism has lost much of its persuasive power--as have many of the theories and systems which arose in opposition to Freud’s views.

An excellent way to develop objective theoretic and practical perspectives for the psychology and psychotherapy of the future is to look at the their foundations in the past.

Brett's History of Psychology. Ed. R. S. Peters. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1965.

An abridgment of Brett's original three volume work, this edition remains an impressive compendium of beliefs, theories, and methodologies regarding psychotherapy from ancient Greek cosmology to the mid-twentieth century.

Discovery of the Unconscious, The: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. Henri F.   Ellenberger. New York: Basic Books, 1970.

Chapter 1 recounts the ancestry of psychodynamic therapies in primal cultures and in ancient Asia, Greece, and Rome. Chapter 2 examines the emergence of modern psychotherapy beginning with Mesmer in 1775. (Later sections describe current systems in detail.)

From Shaman to Psychotherapist: A History of the Treatment of Mental Illness. Walter Bloomberg. Chicago: Regnery, 1975.

This concise yet complete overview covers the progress of psychotherapy from its embodiments in primal magic through medieval religious practices, witchcraft, bloodletting, and the advent of condign asylums, to more liberal treatment facilities, psychoanalysis, TA, TM, Gestalt, behavioral, and electroconvulsive therapies, and psychopharmacology.

Vignettes of major figures range from the little known (Celsus, Roman advocate of cure by torture) through the heroic (Pinel, French champion of humane treatment for the insane) to the intriguing (Mary Baker Eddy, American founder of Christian Science) -- and include, of course, Freud, Jung, Adler, Berne, Maslow, and Perls, among many others.

Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, The. Julian Jaynes. Boston: Houghton  Mifflin, 1976.

The author agues (most interestingly) that, although the left and right hemispheres of the human brain now operate more or less together, they were once much more independent--such that the thoughts and images of the right brain could be received by the left brain as divine instructions and visions. As civilization developed, various sociocultural changes (such as writing), environmental pressures (wars, natural disasters, and social upheavals) and other factors combined with evolution to reduce hemispheric independence, thereby giving rise to a more holistic sense of individual consciousness. Jaynes’ examples and overall rationale have won considerable acclaim for the originality and persuasiveness of his views.

Origins and History of Consciousness, The [Ursprungsgeschichtge des Bewußtseins]. Erich Neumann.  Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970.

Neumann traces the growth and activity of consciousness as represented in some of the great myths common to cultures throughout the world--especially those which portray therapeutic paths of personal transformation.

Therapia: Plato's Conception of Philosophy. Robert F. Cushman. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina  Press, 1958.

Pointing out the unhappiness that comes to those who try to deny or hide from their conflicts, Cushman reveals Plato’s intention that philosophy provoke a process of self-questioning which eventually results in a healing revolution of the entire mind.

Therapy of the Word in Classical Antiquity, The. [Curacion por la Palabra en la Antiguedad Clasica.].  Pedro Lain-Entralgo. Ed. and trans. L. J. Rather and John M. Sharp. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970.

This is an outstanding presentation of the psychotherapeutic purpose underlying much of ancient philosophy--as found in the works of Antiphon, Aristotle, Democritus, Gorgias, Heraclitus, Homer, and Plato.

Sigmund Freud's Christian Unconscious. Paul C. Vitz. New York: Guilford Press, 1988.

Applying the psychoanalytic approach to Freud himself, Vitz uncovers the likely origins of Freudian hostility to religion.

The evidence suggests that while he was still a young child, Freud’s nanny--a Czech Roman Catholic--indoctrinated him in the teachings of her church and may even have covertly baptized him. Freud’s mother, in fact, told her son that not long after he began coming home from excursions with the nanny and subjecting the family to Christian sermons she was let go.

Vitz argues that the young Freud had been very attached to his Christian nanny and that his resulting inner turmoil in relation to her departure probably caused him to blame religion for his loss.

If this is correct, then the consequences for psychoanalysis--and thus for 20th century views of personality, society, psychotherapy, education, and religion--have been both considerable and accidental.

TWENTIETH CENTURY PSYCHOTHERAPY

Readers interested in comprehensive overview texts on psychology and personality theory will find these two volumes very helpful.

Systems And Theories in Psychology. Melvin H. Marx & William. A. Hillix. (4th ed.) New York : McGraw-Hill, 1987.

Theories of Personality. Calvin S. Hall. (3d ed.) New York : Wiley, c1978.

Sometimes a good grasp of long subjects is best begun with the reading of short books and primers. Some excellent “little books” are listed in the categories below, including three from the Mentor Primer Series and two from the What They Really Said Series.

(Imagine walking down a long row of books-after-books about C. G. Jung in the library and then finding, as I did, What Jung Really Said near the end!)

Behaviorism is a complex network of theories based on the idea that there is no reason to believe in the human mind. Even if the mind exists, it is impossible to study objectively. Behaviorists therefore focus on measurable data derived from observable behaviors.

The concept of a self behind behavior is deliberately devalued. Behaviors, attitudes, and ideas of self-references are attributed to the effects of conditioning upon the nervous system.

Despite this preference, many behaviorists eventually accepted the concept of cortical mediation to explain what stubbornly still looked like the operations of a mind. Cortical mediation simply argues that something we don’t yet understand occurs in the cortex of the brain and gives the appearance of a mind at work.

Behaviorism dominated American academic psychology for decades, but has begun to lose sway in recent years -- especially in psychotherapy. Nonetheless it has much to offer in the realm of human behavior and will probably reassert itself in a more comprehensive form in future.

A Primer of Behavioral Psychology. Adelaide Bry. New York: Mentor, 1975.

Bry covers the basics of behavioral psychology from theory to therapy.

About Behaviorism. B. F. Skinner. New York: Vintage, 1976.

Skinner, the primary proponent of radical behaviorism today, forthrightly presents its philosophical basis in this work. On his view behavioral science has failed its potential because it has failed to be sufficiently behavioral, allowing vestiges of mentalism (belief in the mind) to impede its progress. His presentation makes excellent, thoughtful reading, successfully defeats naive criticisms of behaviorism, and defends it as much as possible against well-grounded opposition.

Just as all roads once led to Rome, so too all 20th century psychotherapy leads back to Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Although his ideas on sexual energy, and his division of personality into ego, superego, and id have been widely challenged, his categories of defense mechanisms and other insights into the human condition have endured. On many such important issues, he was probably right more often than wrong. Either way, Freud stirred intense controversies which will continue far into the foreseeable future.

A Primer of Freudian Psychology. Calvin S. Hall. New York: Mentor, 1954.

There are hundreds of books on Freud. This is one of the few which simplifies and clarifies his contributions to theoretical psychology. Hall focuses on Freud’s major concepts, such as the organization, dynamics, and development of personality; defense mechanisms; and his views on the role of the instincts and sexual energy.

Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis [Über Psychoanalyse]. Sigmund Freud. Trans. James Strachey. New York: W. W. Norton, 1977.

Here Freud presents an overall introduction to his basic ideas on dream interpretation, repression, sublimation, eros, fantasy as wish fulfillment, and other important concepts.

What Freud Really Said. David Stafford-Clark. New York: Schocken Books, 1965.

The author presents Freud’s views in the contexts in which he intended them to be understood -- as opposed to what others have sometimes made of them.

C. G. (Carl Gustav) Jung (1875-1961) was an early collaborator rather than simply a “disciple” of Freud’s. Prior to meeting Freud he made many contributions to psychiatry, including the word association test which Freudians also frequently use.

His break with psychoanalysis was primarily precipitated by his disagreement with Freud’s emphasis on the role of sexuality in personality formation. He also held that the spiritual dimension of human existence ought not be summarily dismissed as Freud proposed.

Although the son of a Swiss Lutheran Prediger (pastor), Jung eagerly explored Christian Gnosticism and Eastern religions for insights into the phenomenology of individuation. His Analytical Psychology emphasizes both the spiritual nature of the psyche and the religious properties of psychotherapy. Due to its reliance upon direction from what might be called the mysteries of the unconscious, the Jungian approach is generally considered far more “spiritual” than many others.

Nonetheless he grounded his system in phenomenology and biology -- and appeared calculatedly ambiguous about the ultimate reality of spirit -- probably in hopes of avoiding professional criticism. He therefore spoke theologically and philosophically to scientists and doctors of medicine, while at the same time speaking scientifically and medically to philosophers and theologians. The unintended consequence of his ambiguity, however, is that scientifically oriented critics feel free dismiss his thought as too spiritual, while those who emphasize spirituality criticize his scientific empiricism.

Jungian approaches are slowly gaining influence in American universities. It is likely that increasing academic and professional attention will be paid to his theories and practices for some time to come.

Because Jung's theories are so rich in complex ideas, a relatively larger number of books are recommended for Jungian Analytical Psychology than for other categories of twentieth century psychotherapy.

A Primer of Jungian Psychology. Calvin Hall & Vernon Nordby. New York: Mentor, 1973.

A companion volume to the primer on Freud, this book covers Jung’s conceptions of personality structure and the interactive relations among its various components; the development of personality throughout the stages of life; the nature of the mind; dreams and symbols; and the characteristics of consciousness.

An Introduction to Jung's Psychology. Frieda Fordham. New York: Penguin, 1966.

In addition to Jung’s theories regarding psychological types, archetypes of the collective unconscious, and the nature of dreams, Fordham also covers his views on religious factors in the process of individuation and his contributions to the fields of child development and educational psychology.

Complex/Archetype/Symbol in the Psychology of C. G. Jung. Jolande Jacobi. Trans. Ralph Manheim. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959.

The three elements in this title represent the three legs upon which Jung's systematic theory stands. Jacobi explains each element in turn and shows how they relate to one another in the context of Analytical Psychology.

These are her main points:

Jung did not agree with Freud that dream interpretation was the "royal road to the unconscious." He reserved that appellation for complexes instead. Understanding and thereby overcoming the inhibitory power of complexes (semi-autonomous "mini-personalities" operating within the unconscious) requires courage and a willingness to accept the pain which accompanies growth toward wholeness.

Archetypes may be regarded as energy centers within the psyche, profoundly affecting all its operations, and responsible for the process by which those operations become represented in powerful images which shape our personal understanding of things.

Symbols are archetypes which have risen to the conscious level of the psyche, where they tend to guide or draw the individual toward a realization of the true nature of his or her own existence.

Memories, Dreams, Reflections. C. G. Jung. Ed. Aniela Jaffe. New York: Random House, 1961).

Jung’s autobiography which he started in 1957 at the age of eighty-two and which was completed by his secretary (Jaffe) and published in the year of his death.

The Way of Individuation. Jolande Jacobi. Trans. R.F.C. Hull. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965.

In this book Jacobi emphasizes the decisive role which Jung attributed to consciousness and its ability to achieve insight into the workings of the psyche in the process of individuation -- the path to becoming a whole person.

Of particular note is her focus on the central phase of life, between youth and old age -- the midpoint at which the psyche undertakes its shift toward concern with death and the deeper, spiritual issues of existence.

What Jung Really Said. E. A. (Edward Armstrong) Bennet. New York: Schocken Books, 1966.

Bennet explains the major contributions for which Jung is famous. Among these are his theories of personality complexes, extroversion & introversion, the collective unconscious, archetypes, active imagination, the four functions of consciousness (thinking, feeling, sensation, intuition), as well as his comprehensive methods of dream interpretation. (Also includes a biographical section.)

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was the first great social psychologist -- and indeed the father of sociotherapy. Originally one of Freud’s most valued early associates, Adler eventually rejected the psychoanalytic theory of the unconscious in favor of a social emphasis on the phenomenology of an individual’s “style of life” -- from which we get the term life style. He believed this resulted from the conflict between a person’s need to fit securely within the family social system and an innate human desire for social superiority.

On that account Adler replaced Freud’s sex dominated pleasure principle with a will to power, in which social relations are based on variations in the needs for power and autonomy between members of human groups. He later regarded this as a morbid characteristic limited to neurotics, and offered his concept of social interest as the primary motivating force in healthy individuals. All of these principles have been widely applied to education, child guidance, marriage and family counseling, group work, and individual psychotherapy.

Adler's thought has had a considerable influence upon Neo-Freudian therapy from its inception in the work of Horney, Sullivan, and Fromm to its later development. The titles of two books listed below are self-explanatory.

The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler: A Systematic Presentation in Selections from His Writings. Ed. H. L. Ansbacher and R. R. Ansbacher. New York: Basic Books, 1956.

Understanding Human Nature [Menschenkenntnis]. Alfred Adler. Trans. Walter B. Wolfe. 1927. Reprint New York: Greenberg, 1946.

Like Jung, Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was also a minister’s son. He received a substantial part of his education at Union Theological Seminary. Reacting against the authoritarian and materialist bias inherent both Freudian and behavioral approaches, Rogers encouraged therapists to have an “unconditional positive regard” for all clients.

This is in effect humanistic psychotherapy’s parallel to the Christian call for brotherly love and the Confucian emphasis on deep compassion.

One of Rogers’ most important contributions was the reflective technique. Rather than trying to direct or persuade the client in any particular direction, the therapist simply acknowledges whatever the client shares in therapy -- perhaps with just an encouraging “um-hmm” or “uh-huh.” This leaves the field open for the client’s own self-exploration and ultimate resolution of his own problems.

Later research seemed to demonstrate that Rogerian therapists often unwittingly shaped the content of clients’ statements through covert conditioning -- thereby conducting behavior therapy without even realizing it. If, for instance, the therapist had an unconscious tendency to say “um-hmm” whenever the client spoke about his family, then family issues would come into play with increasing frequency as therapy progressed.

Rogers was personally quite upset about such research, complaining that his entire life’s work was being misunderstood and misrepresented. (See Farber, et al below for a fuller view of Rogers' style.)

Here again, some titles can stand for themselves without additional commentary.

Carl Rogers: The Man and His Ideas. Richard I. Evans. Vol. 8 of Notable Contributors to Personality Theory. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1975.

On Becoming a Person: A Therapist’s View of Psychotherapy. Carl Rogers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961.

*The Psychotherapy of Carl Rogers: Cases and Commentary. Ed. Barry A. Farber, Debora C. Brink, & Patricia M. Raskin. New York: Guilford Press,1996.

This work is particularly valuable for depicting the ways in which Rogers became more directive over the years, using such techniques as sincere humor, exaggerated reflection, focused questioning, interpretation, and metaphor to introduce the client to new ideas as well as to interrupt nonproductive silences.

Consciousness East and West. Kenneth R. Pelletier & Charles Garfield. New York: Harper-Colophon, 1976.

Both an extensive yet easily readable review of the literature and a well presented handbook of major consciousness themes, this work is one of the first to give equal weight to both Western and Eastern perspectives without subsuming either into the other. The authors focus mainly on attempts to understand altered states, however -- ranging from psychopathology and psychedelics to meditation and the application of Zen, hypnosis, guided imagery, deep relaxation, biofeedback, and autogenics to psychotherapy.

Expanding Dimensions of Consciousness. Ed. A. Arthur Sugerman & Ralph E. Tarter. New York: Springer Publishing, 1978.

Although written two decades ago, this clinically oriented, concise yet quite comprehensive compilation of articles on altered states of consciousness remains informative because it deals so well with the basics. Topics include brain mechanisms, hypnosis, biofeedback, sensory deprivation, psychopharmacology, meditative states, and mysticism--and a preliminary attempt at the integration of primary East/West perspectives as well.

Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, The. Julian Jaynes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976.

The author agues (most interestingly) that, although the left and right hemispheres of the human brain now operate more or less together, they were once much more independent--such that the thoughts and images of the right brain could be received by the left brain as divine instructions and visions. As civilization developed, various sociocultural changes (such as writing), environmental pressures (wars, natural disasters, and social upheavals) and other factors combined with evolution to reduce hemispheric independence, thereby giving rise to a more holistic sense of individual consciousness. Jaynes’ examples and overall rationale have won considerable acclaim for the originality and persuasiveness of his views.

Origins and History of Consciousness, The [Ursprungsgeschichtge Des Bewußtseins]. Erich Neumann. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970.

Neumann traces the growth and activity of consciousness as represented in some of the great myths common to cultures throughout the world--especially those which portray therapeutic paths of personal transformation.

Origins of the Mind: Mind-Brain Connections. Charles Furst. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979.

This is an excellent non-technical introduction to the main issues in the study of consciousness , such as perception, memory, sleep and dreaming, imagery and ideation, and the unconscious mind. Examples from animal research, traumatic brain insults in humans, and cerebral neurosurgery are included.

Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of Mind. Charles J. Lumsden & Edward O. Wilson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.

This work presents the evidence and arguments for a sociobiological understanding of consciousness in a highly readable form. Beginning with what is known of early man, the authors move back and forth across the fields of biology and social science to track the way in which both genetic and cultural factors may have led to what is now regarded as the human mind.

Physical Control of the Mind: Toward a Psychocivilized Society. Jose M. R. Delgado. Vol. 41 in the series World Perspectives. Ed. R. N. Anshen. New York: Harper & Row, 1969.

Jose Delgado, M.D. is major figure in modern neuroscience. His studies of the electrocortical stimulation of emotions in cats and monkeys clearly demonstrated physiological correlates of affective states. This work reveals his ambitious interest in engineering "the project of conquering the human mind" (p. 260). It presents scientific materialism at nearly its worst and least humane level. In fact Delgado's reductionist view that "the role of the will is mainly to trigger previously established mechanisms (p. 184, author's italics) leads him to propose electrical control of the will as a positive factor in human socilaization and behavior therapy. Although that proposal is not currently in vogue, this book remains historically important. It not only marks an important period in neurologic research, but serves as a warning mirror with respect to the pyschoneuorochemical reductionism advanced today.

Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness. Roger Penrose. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Acknowledging that when it comes to consciousness research "the deeper our scientific understanding becomes, the more profound the mystery that is revealed" (p. 50), Penrose nonetheless emphasizes that it is primarily through science that we have any objective understanding of consciousness at all. He regards consciousness as having a dual aspect: an active free will sense on the one hand, and a passive sense of nondirected awareness on the other. At the level of neurobiology he suggests that microtubules rather than neurons play the key role in consciousness -- and that consciousness itself must involve a global quantum effect occurring coextensively throughout large expanses of the brain.